UNIVERSITY    OF   CALIFORNIA 

COLLEGE    OF    AGRICULTURE 

AGRICULTURAL   EXPERIMENT  STATION 

CIRCULAR  No.  219 
May,  1920 

THE  PRESENT  STATUS  OF  ALKALI 

By  W.  P.  KELLEY 


From  a  practical  standpoint  the  alkali  problem  may  logically  be 
subdivided  into  two  parts  each  of  which  is  of  great  economic  impor- 
tance. These  are,  (1)  methods  of  prevention;  (2)  the  treatment  of 
alkali  lands.     I  shall  briefly  discuss  each  of  these  questions. 

THE     IMPORTANCE    OF    PREVENTING    THE     SPREAD     OF    ALKALI 

The  economic  loss  resulting  at  the  present  time  from  alkali, 
together  with  the  practical  difficulties  met  with  in  the  successful 
reclamation  of  alkali  land,  amply-  justify  the  College  of  Agriculture 
in  directing  its  full  influence  and  using  every  possible  means  within 
its  power,  to  prevent  the  further  spread  of  alkali.  Regardless  of 
what  may  ultimately  be  discovered  in  the  way  of  methods  of  reclaim- 
ing alkali  land,  and  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  a  number  of  suc- 
cessful alkali  reclamation  projects  have  already  been  conducted  in 
certain  localities  in  the  West,  it  can  be  safely  stated  that  it  is  of  the 
utmost  importance  that  farm  methods  should  come  to  be  adopted 
generally,  which  will  either  entirely  prevent  the  spread  of  alkali  or 
tend  to  retard  and  delay  it.  Such  a  program  cannot  fail  to  be  in  the 
interest  of  the  public  welfare.  In  my  opinion,  the  College  of  Agri- 
culture can  scarcely  render  a  more  important  public  service  than 
that  of  focusing  public  attention  on  this  problem,  and  helping  to  direct 
farm  practices  along  lines  that  will  retard  the  spread  of  alkali.  An 
ounce  of  prevention  is  certainly  worth  a  great  many  pounds  of  cure. 

As  illustrating  the  needs  and  acuteness  of  this  matter,  I  wish  first, 
briefly  to  call  your  attention  to  the  two  most  important  means  by 
which  alkali  finds  its  way  into  good  lands.  I  will  name  these  in  the 
reverse  order  of  their  present  economic  importance. 


*  An  address  delivered  at  the  annual  conference  of  Farm  Advisors,  in  Berkeley, 
March  25,  1920. 


The  use  of  saline  irrigation  water. — You  are  perhaps  all  familiar 
with  our  recent  bulletin  on  "The  Effects  of  Alkali  on  Citrus  Trees,"* 
This  bulletin  sets  forth  the  more  important  relationships  between  the 
use  of  saline  irrigation  water  and  the  development  of  the  alkali  prob- 
lem. Briefly,  we  have  found  that  a  considerable  quantity  of  the  water 
now  being  applied  to  the  citrus  groves  of  California  contains  sufficient 
amounts  of  salts  to  produce  injury  within  a  rather  brief  period  of 
time.  Such  waters  are  found  scattered  over  a  large  number  of  citrus 
sections.  Not  all  of  the  water  in  any  one  locality,  however,  is  excess- 
ively saline. 

In  certain  localities  in  several  different  counties  in  this  State, 
important  economic  losses  have  already  resulted  from  the  use  of  saline 
water.  In  other  localities  the  injury  has  been  less  severe,  yet  suf- 
ficiently pronounced  to  show  the  trend  and  general  importance  of  this 
matter.  In  addition,  quite  a  number  of  comparatively  young  citrus 
groves  are  now  being  irrigated  with  water  so  saline  in  character  as 
inevitably  sooner  or  later  to  produce  serious  injury.  Some  of  these 
are  located  in  districts  well  adapted  to  citrus  culture  and  in  certain 
cases  on  soils  of  high  fertility.  In  the  vast  majority  of  such  cases, 
the  harmful  constituent  is  sodium  chloride,  but  other  harmful  salts 
are  also  always  present. 

A  similar,  but  even  more  acute  situation,  occurs  in  certain  walnut 
orchards.  In  fact,  we  can  safely  say  that  walnut  trees  are  even  more 
sensitive  to  alkali  salts,  especially  chlorides,  than  citrus  trees. 

In  almost,  if  not  every  case,  the  owner  of  the  affected  grove  gave 
no  particular  thought  to  the  quality  of  his  water,  until  the  injury  had 
become  severe.  As  is  commonly  the  case,  the  owner  had,  of  course, 
assured  himself  concerning  the  amount  of  water  available,  but  its 
quality  had  not  been  given  serious  consideration.  In  certain  cases 
the  water  was  known  to  be  unpalatable,  but  even  so,  its  suitability  for 
irrigation  had  not  been  seriously  questioned. 

While  our  activities  have  already  served  to  arouse  public  interest 
in  this  matter,  to  some  extent  at  least,  it  should  not  be  concluded  that 
the  task  is  completed.  It  is  important  to  recall,  in  this  connection, 
that  the  results  of  recent  investigations  are  fully  in  accord  with  the 
publications  of  Drs.  Hilgard  and  Loughridge,  issued  twenty  or  more 
years  ago.  Wide  publicity  was  given  by  them  to  the  importance  of 
good  water,  and  yet,  after  a  lapse  of  a  few  years,  the  lessons  which 
they  sought  to  teach  seem  to  have  been  forgotten.  It  is  reasonable 
to  expect  that  the  same  outcome  will  result  from  the  recent  investiga- 

*  Kelley,  W.  P.,  and  Thomas,  E.  E.  "The  Effects  of  Alkali  on  Citrus  Trees." 
Calif.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  318,  1920. 


tions,  unless  special  effort  be  made  to  crystalize  the  idea  in  the  minds 
of  the  owners  of  land,  and  to  keep  the  matter  before  them,  continually. 

There  are  new  areas  yet  to  be  planted,  whose  water  supply  must 
be  secured,  and  the  quality  of  which  must  be  assured,  and  what  is 
more  to  the  point  at  present,  many  citrus  and  walnut  growers  still 
remain  to  be  convinced  that  their  present  water  supply  is  not  suf- 
ficiently pure. 

In  my  opinion,  one  of  the  most  important  considerations  is  that 
of  preventing  the  injury  before  it  arises.  It  is  not  sufficient  to  point 
out  that  injury  has  been  produced  in  a  given  case.  Our  efforts  should 
be  directed  toward  preventing  the  injury  from  ever  occurring.  It  is 
true  that  not  all  of  the  injured  groves  studied  are  hopeless.  Indeed, 
relatively  few  of  them  are  beyond  possible  recovery,  but  the  economic 
loss  accruing  to  the  State  is  too  great  to  justify  an  attitude  of  passive 
indifference. 

It  must  not  be  inferred  that  citrus  and  walnuts  are  the  only 
crops  that  need  to  be  considered  in  this  connection.  These  crops  are 
especially  sensitive  to  alkali  and  perhaps  more  so  than  most  of  the 
other  fruit  trees  and  field  crops.  Nevertheless,  saline  irrigation 
water  cannot  be  applied  with  impunity  to  other  crops.  Neither  should 
it  be  inferred  that  all  of  the  irrigation  supplies  now  being  applied  to 
other  crops  are  sufficiently  pure.  Numerous  cases  have  come  to  our 
attention  where  extremely  brackish  waters  are  being  applied  to  other 
crops  and  where  injury  has  already  been  produced  in  consequence. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  designate  localities  in  this  connection.  It  is 
sufficient  merely  to  say  that  there  are  relatively  few  irrigated  dis- 
tricts in  California  where  all  of  the  water  now  being  applied  is  free 
from  alkali. 

What  can  you  as  Farm  Advisors  do  in  this  connection?  In  the 
first  place,  in  your  contact  with  growers  you  can  help  to  bring  them 
to  the  point  where  they  will  give  thought  to  this  matter  for  them- 
selves. What  is  needed,  among  other  things,  is  a  realization  on  the 
part  of  the  owner  of  the  land,  that  he  is  dealing  with  a  treacherous 
matter  when  he  begins  to  apply  saline  irrigation  water  to  his  land, 
and  that  he  is  very  likely  to  be  storing  up  trouble  for  himself  or 
for  future  generations.  In  my  opinion,  the  responsibility  of  this 
College  is  not  confined  to  the  present.  It  is  equally  important  that 
fundamentally  sound  and  reasonably  permanent  methods  should  be 
employed. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  it  may  be  possible  to  secure  a 
much  purer  supply  of  irrigation  water  than  that  now  in  use.     In 


any  event,  we  know  of  certain  cases  where  good  water  rights  were 
released  from  considerable  tracts  of  land,  after  wells  have  been 
developed  on  them,  but,  unfortunately,  these  well  waters  later  pro- 
duced severe  injury.  It  is  certain  that  the  previous  water  rights 
would  never  have  been  released  from  these  lands,  had  the  quality 
of  the  well  water  been  apprehended.  In  one  locality  a  number  of 
growers,  whose  orchards  were  later  severely  injured,  actually  refused 
stock  in  an  irrigation  company,  when  it  was  first  organized,  the 
quality  of  whose  water  is  highly  satisfactory.  Later,  when  their 
groves  had  been  severely  injured,  they  found  considerable  difficulty 
in  securing  rights  in  this  supply  of  good  water. 

How  much  better  it  would  have  been,  had  these  growers  been 
aware  at  the  outset  of  the  quality  of  their  water  and  of  the  necessity 
of  securing  the  good  water  that  was  at  their  command.  In  these  and 
in  other  cases,  the  grower  had  not  given  serious  consideration  to  the 
quality  of  the  water.  He  simply  had  not  thought  about  it,  one  way 
or  another. 

In  the  second  place,  I  believe  that  you,  as  Farm  Advisors,  can  be 
of  public  service  in  helping  to  crystalize  public  sentiment  in  the 
matter  of  conserving  the  supplies  of  good  water.  I  have  special  refer- 
ence to  the  conservation  of  flood  waters  in  particular.  By  conserving 
the  floods  and  ordinary  run-off  from  the  mountains,  we  will  not  only 
tend  to  abate  the  nuisance  occasioned  by  the  floods  themselves,  but 
will  at  the  same  time,  help  to  provide  larger  supplies  of  good  water, 
and,  therefore,  make  it  easier  to  secure  suitable  water  for  irrigation. 
It  is  true  that  neither  of  these  two  lines  of  endeavor  is  particularly 
spectacular,  but  they  are,  in  my  opinion,  entirely  worth  your  con- 
sideration as  servants  of  the  public. 

High  water  table. — The  second  method  whereby  alkali  finds  its 
way  into  good  land,  is  through  the  agency  of  a  high  water  table.  I 
need  not  dwell  on  this  fact.  You  are  all  fully  aware  of  its  importance. 
It  will  suffice  merely  to  state  that  several  hundred  thousand  acres  in 
the  San  Joaquin  Valley,  which  were  comparatively  free  from  alkali 
previous  to  the  advent  of  irrigation,  have  already  been  seriously 
injured,  or  entirely  abandoned.  Considerable  areas  in  portions  of  the 
Sacramento  Valley  have  likewise  been  injured,  and  in  all  probability, 
a  considerable  part  of  the  Imperial  Valley  is  seriously  threatened  at 
the  present  time.  In  all  these  cases,  a  rising  water  table  is  largely 
r< 'sponsible  for  the  trouble.  Soils,  by  the  hundreds  of  thousands  of 
acres,  that  were  formerly  fruitful  and  rich,  now  contain  injurious 
amounts  of  alkali. 


I  wish  especially  to  emphasize  that  the  end  has  by  no  means  been 
reached.  The  process  is  in  operation  on  a  grand,  scale,  over  large 
areas  at  the  present  moment,  and  if  it  be  not  checked,  it  is  certain 
that  very  large  areas  of  *  land  of  high  productivity  at  present  will 
sooner  or  later  become  heavily  charged  with  alkali.  It  is  to  these 
lands  not  yet  severly  injured,  but  in  the  process  of  being  injured, 
that  I  wish  to  direct  your  special  attention.  I  believe  as  great 
public  service  can  be  rendered  at  present  through  concerted  effort 
looking  toward  the  saving  of  land  from  ever  becoming  charged  with 
alkali,  as  through  any  other  single  activity  within  the  reach  of  this 
organization. 

There  may  be  exceptions,  but  I  believe  it  safe  to  say  that  every 
extensively  irrigated  area  in  California,  on  which  the  water  table 
has  already  risen  within  five  or  six  feet  of  the  surface  and  is  still 
rising,  is  positively  threatened  with  an  alkali  problem.  It  is  true 
there  may  be  small  areas  where  a  high  water  table  may  not  lead  to 
the  accumulation  of  alkali,  but  I  believe  they  are  the  exception  rather 
than  the  rule.  It  is  also  true  that  certain  crops  may  be  grown  on 
some  of  these  lands  even  with  a  permanent  water  table  within  three 
to  six  feet  of  the  surface.  Nevertheless,  the  vast  majority  of  such 
lands  are  constantly  confronted  with  the  probability  of  serious  alkali 
injury. 

What  are  the  means  within  the  reach  of  the  farmer,  whereby  the 
spread  of  alkali,  occasioned  by  a  high  water  table,  may  be  checked 
or  prevented  altogether  ?  There  are  three  points  that  should  be  taken 
into  consideration  in  this  connection  in  every  irrigated  district. 

Seepage. — First,  preventing  seepage  from  leaky  canals  and  laterals. 
I  am  not  aware  of  any  very  extensive  studies  on  this  phase  of  the 
subject  in  California,  but  I  believe  the  evidence  is  pretty  strong,  that 
a  considerable  portion  of  the  excess  water  that  goes  to  cause  a  high 
water  table,  can  be  traced  directly  to  seepage  from  the  canals  and 
laterals. 

Some  studies  have  been  made  on  this  subject  on  the  Salt  River 
Valley  irrigation  project,  under  the  Roosevelt  Dam  in  Arizona,  that 
are  of  interest  to  us.  It  is  estimated  by  a  board,  consisting  of  three 
competent  engineers,  that  the  seepage  losses  from  the  800  miles  of 
canals  and  laterals  of  the  Salt  River  Valley  Water  Users '  Association, 
amount  to  152,000  acre  feet  per  annum.  If  this  figure  be  only  approxi- 
mately correct,  there  is  here  represented  enough  water  to  irrigate 
38,000  acres  at  the  rate  of  four  acre  feet  per  acre  per  annum,  or  a  little 
more  than  50,000  acres  at  the  rate  of  three  acre  feet.    But,  as  already 


intimated,  the  worst  feature  of  this  loss,  important  as  is  the  loss  of 
the  water  itself,  is  the  fact  that  good  lands  are  being  actually  injured 
through  the  rise  of  alkali  as  a  result  of  the  rising  water  table,  caused 
in  part  by  this  seepage. 

All,  or  practically  all,  of  this  loss  could  have  been  permanently 
avoided  by  lining  or  cementing  the  canals  and  laterals  at  the  outset. 
Whether  or  not  it  will  be  economical  to  line  the  canals  in  a  given 
case,  I  do  not  attempt  to  say.  In  my  opinion,  however,  the  time  is 
coming  when  practically  all  canals  and  laterals  will  be  lined,  both 
as  a  means  of  saving  water  and  preventing  the  accumulation  of  alkali. 
There  isn't  enough  water  obtainable  to  irrigate  all  the  dry  lands  of 
California,  even  with  the  saving  of  every  drop  of  water  that  can 
be  developed. 

Method  of  application  of  water  (or  over-irrigation) . — The  second 
means  of  preventing  a  high  water  table  is  that  afforded  by  the  use 
of  better  methods  of  distributing  the  water,  and  especially  through 
the  application  of  less  water  at  a  given  time.  This  statement,  of 
course,  does  not  apply  equally  to  all  irrigated  sections,  but  in  all 
probability  an  excessive  use  of  water  is  as  much  responsible  for  high 
water  tables  generally,  as  any  other  single  factor. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  any  amount  of  water  applied,  over 
and  above  that  which  the  soil  is  capable  of  holding  to  a  depth  within 
reach  of  the  roots  of  the  crops  grown  thereon,  must  be  regarded  as 
being  lost,  and  at  the  same  time  as  contributing  directly  toward  the 
rise  of  the  ground  water  level.  It  is  estimated  that  approximately 
one-third  of  the  water  that  is  applied  to  the  farms  of  the  Salt  River 
Valley  of  Arizona  is  actually  lost,  as  a  result  of  deep  penetration 
occasioned  by  over-irrigation. 

Excessive  amounts  of  water  have  undoubtedly  been  applied  in 
many  places  in  this  State,  and  the  practice  has  by  no  means  been 
wholly  discontinued.  In  certain  cases  our  attention  has  been  called 
to  the  fact  that  certain  farmers  in  the  early  spring  apply  extremely 
large  quantities  of  water  at  a  single  application,  amounting  in  certain 
cases  to  one  or  more  acre  feet  per  acre.  Their  idea  seems  to  be  that 
of  ' '  storing ' '  water  for  the  use  of  crops  later  in  the  year.  They  seem 
to  fail  to  realize  that  the  main  portion  of  the  water  that  penetrates 
below  the  reach  of  roots  is  permanently  lost.  Not  only  is  it  lost,  but 
such  water  contributes  directly  towards  the  rise  of  the  ground  water 
level. 

Any  step  that  may  be  taken  to  reduce  seepage  losses  from  canals, 
or  bring  about  the  more  economic  application  of  water  and  thereby 


reduce  the  amount  of  water  that  penetrates  below  the  reach  of  roots, 
should  be  looked  upon  as  being  preventive  measures  of  the  very  first 
importance.  A  campaign  of  continuous  public  education  along  these 
two  lines  would,  in  my  judgment,  be  eminently  worth  while.  The  need 
for  such  a  campaign  is  especially  important  in  districts  being  brought 
under  irrigation  for  the  first  time,  for  it  can  now  be  positively  stated, 
that  the  irrigation  of  any  considerable  area  of  land,  if  it  be  not 
specially  favorably  located,  or  if  it  be  not  handled  in  the  most 
judicious  manner,  is  very  likely  sooner  or  later  to  lead  to  a  high 
water  table  either  on  the  land  itself,  or  on  adjacent  lower  lands.  In 
either  case,  the  public  welfare  is  at  stake. 

Drainage. — Consideration  of  the  losses  from  seepage  and  over- 
irrigation  leads  directly  to  the  third  means  of  preventing  an  accumu- 
lation of  alkali.  I  have  reference  to  drainage.  It  is  hardly  necessary 
for  me  to  state  that  I  do  not  pretend  to  be  a  drainage  expert.  Never- 
theless, drainage  as  a  preventive  measure,  that  is,  as  a  means  of  pre- 
venting the  ultimate  accumulation  of  alkali,  appeals  to  me  as  being 
a  matter  of  great  importance.  Even  though  the  very  best  system 
of  irrigation  be  employed,  and  seepage  losses  be  prevented  from  the 
canals  and  laterals,  there  will  still  be  unavoidable  seepage,  with  the 
resulting  ultimate  necessity  for  drainage  in  many  localities.  In  my 
opinion,  drainage  as  a  means  of  preventing  the  accumulation  of  alkali, 
is  even  more  important  at  present  than  is  drainage  as  a  means  of 
reclaiming  land  that  has  already  been  injured  by  alkali. 

THE    RECLAMATION    OF   ALKALI    LAND 

Most  of  you  are  aware  that  several  members  of  this  staff  are 
engaged  in  investigations  on  alkali.  Certain  phases  of  this  work 
were  presented  to  the  staff  on  October  23  of  last  year.  Since  that 
time,  six  or  eight  men  have  devoted  practically  all  their  time  to  this 
question,  and  will  probably  continue  to  do  so  for  an  indefinite  period. 
The  more  we  study  the  several  phases  of  alkali,  the  more  evident  it 
becomes  that  there  are  many  angles  to  it,  but  I  do  not  propose  to 
burden  you  with  a  lot  of  details.  I  shall  rather,  briefly  summarize 
the  results  obtained  to  date. 

The  investigations  have  been  directed  with  special  reference  to 
the  Kearney  Ranch  near  Fresno.  It  is  felt  that  a  solution  of  the 
problems  on  this  ranch  will  go  far  toward  affording  a  clue  to  the 
solution  of  similar  problems  in  other  localities.  We  are  studying  the 
following  questions: 


8 

(1)  Why  have  successful  crops  not  been  obtained  on  considerable 
portions  of  the  Experimental  Drainage  Tract  of  Section  6  of  the 
Kearney  Ranch,  since  it  was  under-drained  ? 

(2)  What  kinds  and  amounts  of  salts  occur  in  other  portions  of 
the  ranch?  In  other  words,  are  the  alkali  conditions  met  with  on 
Section  6  typical  of  the  ranch  as  a  whole  ? 

(3)  Is  the  water  table  dangerously  high  at  present,  will  it  become 
high  later,  and  how  can  it  be  kept  down  ? 

(4)  What  means  can  be  employed  to  remove  the  alkali  from  this 
soil  and  secure  successful  crops  ? 

(5)  What  are  the  chemical  and  physical  effects  of  salts  on  soils, 
the  effects  produced  by  leaching,  and  the  relative  rates  different  salts 
move  through  soils? 

(6)  What  are  the  relative  tolerances  of  crops  to  alkali  salts  and 
the  physiological  effects  produced  by  salts  on  plants? 

You  will  see  at  once,  that  within  these  questions  are  embraced 
the  whole  field  of  alkali  investigation,  and  under  one  or  the  other 
of  these  heads,  logically  falls  practically  every  known  phase  of  the 
question. 

You  will  recall  that  we  were  of  the  opinion  last  October  that  the 
black  alkali  still  present  in  the  soil  of  Section  6  of  the  Kearney 
Ranch,  was  responsible  for  the  failure  of  crops.  Since  that  time  the 
evidence  has  become  overwhelming.  It  can  now  be  stated  positively 
that  prohibitive  amounts  of  black  alkali  occur  in  a  considerable  por- 
tion of  this  area,  and  that  where  it  is  present  in  large  amounts,  no 
amount  of  ordinary  leaching  and  drainage  can  ever  hope  to  wash  it 
out.  However,  white  alkali  salts  can  fairly  easily  be  washed  out  of 
soil  of  this  and  other  types,  especially  if  the  soil  be  kept  flocculated 
through  the  use  of  some  flocculating  agent. 

There  is  nothing  new  in  these  statements.  Hilgard  pointed  out 
similar  principles  years  ago,  and  in  practically  every  locality  where, 
black  alkali  occurs,  on  which  reclamation  projects  have  been  attempted, 
it  has  been  found  to  be  a  matter  of  great  difficulty  to  wash  the  black 
alkali  out  of  the  soil.  It  is  necessary  to  neutralize  black  alkali,  that 
is,  to  convert  it  into  white  alkali,  before  it  can  be  successfully  removed, 
at  least  from  soils  as  heavy  as  the  loams  and  clays.  I  regret  to  state 
that  as  yet,  we  have  not  succeeded  in  neutralizing  the  black  alkali 
sufficiently,  where  it  occurs  in  large  amounts. 

However,  large  amounts  of  black  alkali  do  not  occur  in  all  portions 
of  the  Kearney  Ranch,  even  where  salts  are  very  much  in  evidence 


on  the  surface.     Just  what  proportion  of  the  ranch  is  charged  with 
prohibitive  amounts  of  black  alkali,  cannot  now  be  stated. 

Without  going*  further  into  these  investigations,  I  wish  to  put 
before  you  a  brief  summary  of  our  views  on  this  whole  question.  As 
I  understand  the  matter,  some  of  those  present  last  October  were 
led  to  draw  certain  conclusions  which  were  not  intended,  nor  war- 
ranted. I  hope  that  no  one  present  will  any  longer  be  left  in  doubt 
concerning  the  views  of  those  who  are  investigating  these  questions. 

SUMMARY    OF    ALKALI    PROBLEMS 

The  whole  matter  of  alkali  resolves  itself  into  two  comparatively 
simple  questions,  so  far  as  the  broad  general  principles  are  concerned : 
(1)  Preventing  the  accumulation  of  an  excess  of  salts  in  the  first  place, 
through  the  elimination  of  saline  irrigation  water,  on  the  one  hand, 
and  keeping  the  water  table  below  the  capillary  reach  of  the  surface, 
on  the  other.  (2)  Leaching  the  excess  of  salts  out  of  the  soil  after 
they  have  accumulated,  and  at  the  same  time,  maintaining  chemical 
and  physical  conditions  that  are  favorable  to  the  growth  of  crops. 
While  the  general  principles  are  reasonably  simple,  the  working  out 
of  the  practical  details,  whereby  the  specific  factors  can  be  controlled 
and  the  desired  end  attained,  often  presents  great  difficulties.  Some 
of  these  difficulties  still  remain  to  be  surmounted. 

The  following  is,  I  believe,  a  fair  statement  of  the  facts,  as  under- 
stood at  present,  so  far  as  the  removal  of  alkali  and  water  from  soils 
is  concerned. 

(1)  Drainage,  especially  if  it  be  accompanied  by  flooding,  is  a 
reasonably  successful  means  of  removing  white  alkali  from  soils. 
Other  things  being  equal,  the  degree  of  success  will  depend  upon  the 
readiness  with  which  the  water  penetrates  into  and  percolates  through 
the  soil  mass. 

(2)  If  large  amounts  of  black  alkali  occur,  ordinary  drainage  will 
probably  not  restore  the  land  to  a  state  where  crops  will  succeed, 
unless  the  black  alkali  first  be  neutralized  in  the  soil  mass.  As  yet 
we  have  not  found  an  economical  means  of  neutralizing  large  amounts 
of  black  alkali,  especially  where  it  occurs  in  the  subsoil.  Consequently, 
we  are  not  ready  to  make  definite  recommendations  concerning  this 
point.  In  other  words,  ordinary  drainage,  even  when  accompanied 
by  flooding,  cannot  be  relied  upon  to  remove  black  alkali.  This  should 
not  be  interpreted  to  mean,  however,  that  we  do  not  believe  in  drainage 
as  an  important  step  in  the  reclamation  of  white  alkali  land  where 
the  water  table  is  high,  or  as  a  means  of  lowering  the  water  table. 


10 

(3)  Lands  containing  only  comparatively  small  amounts  of  black 
alkali,  especially  if  the  black  alkali  occurs  mainly  in  the  first  foot  of 
the  soil,  can  probably  be  successfully  reclaimed  by  drainage,  provided 
an  application  of  gypsum  also  be  made.  However,  unless  an  applica- 
tion of  gypsum  be  made,  or  some  other  agent  producing  similar  effects, 
the  probabilities  of  success  with  such  soils  are  not  assuring. 

(4)  With  such  soils  as  occur  on  the  Kearney  Ranch  and  probably 
with  loams  and  clays  generally,  we  believe  it  desirable,  in  fact  fre- 
quently necessary,  to  apply  some  such  material  as  gypsum  before 
flooding,  even  though  black  alkali  be  practically  absent.  This  is  for 
the  reason  that  a  very  poor  physical  condition  is  likely  to  be  produced 
as  a  result  of  the  leaching.  The  soil  may  become  highly  colloidal  and 
deflocculated,  with  the  resulting  loss  of  tilth  and  the  production  of 
unfavorable  condition  for  the  growth  of  crops  generally.  Gypsum 
will  tend  to  flocculate  the  soil.  In  some  cases  it  may  even  be  necessary 
to  make  an  application  of  manure  or  some  other  organic  material 
following  the  flooding  as  a  means  of  building  up  the  soil. 

(5)  Drainage,  as  a  means  of  preventing  the  accumulation  of  alkali 
in  the  first  place,  is  advisable  wherever  the  water  table  is  rising. 
Artificial  drainage,  if  properly  planned  and  installed,  will  largely 
prevent  the  further  spread  of  alkali. 

(6)  Tile  drains,  if  properly  planned  and  installed,  undoubtedly 
afford  a  successful  means  of  lowering  the  water  table. 

In  closing,  it  is  appropriate  to  remark  that  our  views  at  present 
are  not  greatly  different  from  those  held  and  widely  advocated  by 
our  illustrious  predecessor,  Dr.  Hilgard.  Those  who  are  familiar  with 
his  extensive  publications,  realize  that  the  principles  enunciated  by 
him  are  not  only  sound,  but  far-reaching,  both  in  theory  and  practice. 
He  who  essays  to  investigate  any  of  the  various  phases  of  the  alkali 
problem,  will  do  well  indeed  to  scrutinize  the  publications  of  Dr. 
Hilgard.  Endowed  with  an  unusually  keen  mind,  broad  training  and 
enthusiastic  devotion  both  to  theory  and  practice,  the  major  portion 
of  his  active  life  was  spent  with  this  subject.  The  compass  of  his 
researches  is  far  greater  than  casual  reading  will  reveal,  and  the 
results  of  his  labors  will  continue  to  yield  an  unmeasured  harvest. 
The  present-day  student  of  this  subject  has  a  rich  heritage  in  his 
records. 


STATION  PUBLICATIONS  AVAILABLE  FOR  FREE  DISTRIBUTION 


No. 

168.  Observations   on    Some    Vine   Diseases 

in   Sonoma   County. 

169.  Tolerance  of  the  Sugar  Beet  for  Alkali. 
185.   Report  of  Progress  in  Cereal   Investi- 
gations. 

208.   The  Late  Blight  of  Celery. 
230.   Enological  Investigations. 

250.  The  Loquat. 

251.  Utilization  of  the  Nitrogen  and  Organic 

Matter    in    Septic    and    Imhoff   Tank 
Sludges. 

252.  Deterioration  of  Lumber. 

253.  Irrigation    and   Soil   Conditions  in  the 

Sierra    Nevada    Foothills,    California. 
257.   New   Dosage   Tables. 

261.  Melaxuma    of    the    Walnut,     "Juglans 

regia." 

262.  Citrus   Diseases   of   Florida    and   Cuba 

Compared  with  Those  of  California. 

263.  Size  Grades  for  Ripe  Olives. 

266.  A  Spotting  of  Citrus  Fruits  Due  to  the 

Action    of    Oil    Liberated    from    the 
Rind. 

267.  Experiments  with  Stocks  for  Citrus. 

268.  Growing  and  Grafting  Olive  Seedlings. 

270.  A  Comparison  of  Annual  Cropping,  Bi- 

ennial Cropping,  and  Green  Manures 
on  the  Yield  of  Wheat. 

271.  Feeding  Dairy  Calves  in  California. 

272.  Commercial  Fertilizers. 

273.  Preliminary  Report  on  Kearney  Vine- 

yard Experimental  Drain. 

274.  The  Common  Honey  Bee  as  an  Agent 

in  Prune  Pollination. 

275.  The  Cultivation  of  Belladonna  in  Cali- 

fornia. 

276.  The  Pomegranate. 

277.  Sudan  Grass. 

278.  Grain   Sorghums. 

279.  Irrigation  of  Rice  in  California. 

280.  Irrigation  of  Alfalfa  in  the  Sacramento 

Valley. 

281.  Control  of  the  Pocket  Gopher  in  Cali- 

fornia. 

282.  Trials  with  California  Silage  Crops  for 

Dairy  Cows. 


BULLETINS 

No. 

283. 

284. 
285. 
286. 
288. 


290. 


296. 
297. 
298. 
299. 

300. 
301. 

302. 

303. 
304. 


307. 
308. 


309. 

310. 
311. 
312. 
313. 

314. 
316. 
317. 

318. 
319. 
320. 
321. 
322. 


The  Olive  Insects  of  California. 

Irrigation  of  Alfalfa  in  Imperial  Valley. 

The  Milch  Goat  in  California. 

Commercial   Fertilizers. 

Potash  from  Tule  and  the  Fertilizer 
Value  of  Certain  Marsh  Plants. 

The  June  Drop  of  Washington  Navel 
Oranges. 

Sweet   Sorghums  for  Forage. 

Topping  and   Pinching  Vines. 

The  Almond  in  California. 

Seedless  Raisin   Grapes. 

The  Use  of  Lumber  on  California 
Farms. 

Commercial  Fertilizers. 

California  State  Dairy  Cow  Competi- 
tion.  1916-18. 

Control  of  Ground  Squirrels  by  the 
Fumigation  Method. 

Grape  Syrup. 

A  Study  on  the  Effects  of  Freezes  on 
Citrus  in  California. 

The  Influence  of  Barley  on  the  Milk 
Secretion  of  Cows. 

Pollination  of  the  Bartlett  Pear. 

I.  Fumigation  with  Liquid  Hydrocianic 
Acid.  II.  Physical  and  Chemical 
Properties  of  Liquid  Hydrocianic 
Acid. 

I.  The  Carob  in  California.  II.  Nutri- 
tive Value  of  the  Carob  Bean. 

Plum  Pollination. 

Investigations  with  Milking  Machines. 

Mariout  Barley. 

Pruning  Young  Deciduous  Fruit 
Trees. 

Cow-Testing  Associations  in  California. 

The  Kaki  or  Oriental  Persimmon. 

Selection  of  Stocks  in  Citrus  Propaga- 
tion. 

The  Effects  of  Alkali  on  Citrus  Trees. 

Caprifigs  and  Caprification. 

Control  of  the  Coyote  in  California. 

Commercial  Production  of  Grape  Syrup. 

The  Evaporation  of  Grapes. 


No. 

50. 
65. 

70. 

76. 
82. 

87. 
109. 


110. 
111. 

113. 
114. 
115. 
117. 

124. 
126. 
127. 
128. 
129. 
130. 
131. 
133. 


Fumigation   Scheduling. 

The  California  Insecticide  Law. 

Observations  on  the  Status  of  Corn 
Growing  in  California. 

Hot  Room  Callusing. 

The  Common  Ground  Squirrels  of 
California. 

Alfalfa. 

Community  or  Local  Extension  Work 
by  the  High  School  Agricultural  De- 
partment. 

Green  Manuring  in  California. 

The  Use  of  Lime  and  Gypsum  on  Cali- 
fornia  Soils. 

Correspondence  Courses  in  Agriculture. 

Increasing  the  Duty  of  Water. 

Graftiner  Vinifera  Vineyards. 

The  Selection  and  Cost  of  a  Small 
Pumping  Plant. 

Alfalfa  Silage  for  Fattening  Steers. 

Spraying  for  the  Grape  Leaf  Hopper. 

House  Fumigation. 

Insecticide  Formulas. 

The  Control  of  Citrus  Insects. 

Cabbage  Growing  in  California. 

Spraying  for  Control  of  Walnut  Aphis. 

County  Farm  Adviser. 


CIRCULARS 

No. 
135. 
136. 
137. 
138. 
139. 


140. 


143. 

144. 
147. 
148. 
152. 

153. 

154. 

155. 
156. 
157. 
158. 
159. 
160. 


Official  Tests  of  Dairy  Cows. 

Melilotus  Indica. 

Wood  Decay  in  Orchard  Trees. 

The  Silo  in  California  Agriculture. 

The  Generation  of  Hydrocyanic  Acid 
Gas  in  Fumigation  by  Portable 
Machines. 

The  Practical  Application  of  Improved 
Methods  of  Fermentation  in  Califor- 
nia Wineries  during  1913  and  1914. 

Control  of  Grasshoppers  in  Imperial 
Valley. 

Oidium  or  Powdery  Mildew  of  the  Vine. 

Tomato  Growing  in  California. 

"Lungworms". 

Some  Observations  on  the  Bulk  Hand- 
ling of  Grain  in  California. 

Announcement  of  the  California  State 
Dairy  Cow  Competition,   1916-18. 

Irrigation  Practice  in  Growing  Small 
Fruits  in  California. 

Bovine  Tuberculosis. 

How  to  Operate  an  Incubator. 

Control  of  the  Pear  Scab. 

Home  and  Farm  Canning. 

Agriculture  in  the  Imperial  Valley. 

Lettuce  Growing  in  California. 


CIRCULARS — Continued 


No. 
164. 
165. 

167. 
168. 

169. 
170. 

172. 


174. 
175. 

176. 

177. 
178. 
179. 

181. 

182. 

183. 
184. 
185. 

187. 
188. 
189. 
190. 


No. 

Small   Fruit  Culture  in  California.  191. 

Fundamentals   of    Sugar   Beet   Culture  193. 

under  California  Conditions.  195. 
Feeding  Stuffs  of  Minor  Importance. 

Spraying     for     the     Control     of     Wild  197. 

Morning-Glory  within  the  Fog  Belt. 

The    1918   Grain   Crop.  198. 

Fertilizing     California     Soils     for     the  199. 

1918   Crop.  201. 

Wheat  Culture.  202. 
The    Construction    of    the    Wood-Hoop 

Silo.  203. 

Farm  Drainage  Methods.  204. 
Progress  Report  on  the  Marketing  and 

Distribution  of  Milk.  205. 

Hog  Cholera  Prevention  and  the  Serum  206. 

Treatment.  207. 

Grain    Sorghums.  208. 
The  Packing  of  Apples  in  California. 

Factors   of     Importance    in    Producing  209. 

Milk  of  Low  Bacterial   Count.  210. 

Control     of      the     California     Ground  213. 

Squirrel.  214. 
Extending  the  Area  of  Irrigated  Wheat 

in   California  for  1918.  215. 

Infectious  Abortion   in   Cows.  216. 
A  Flock  of   Sheep  on  the  Farm. 

Beekeeping   for   the    Fruit-grower    and  217. 

Small  Rancher  or  Amateur. 

Utilizing  the   Sorghums.  218. 
Lambing  Sheds. 

Winter  Forage  Crops.  219. 

Agriculture  Clubs  in   California.  220. 


Pruning  the  Seedless  Grapes. 

A  Study  of  Farm  Labor  in  California. 

Revised  Compatibility  Chart  of  Insecti- 
cides and  Fungicides. 

Suggestions  for  Increasing  Egg  Produc- 
tion in  a  Time  of  High-Feed  Prices. 

Syrup  from  Sweet  Sorghum. 

Onion  Growing  in   California. 

Helpful  Hints  to  Hog  Raisers. 

County  Organization  for  Rural  Fire 
Control. 

Peat   as   a  Manure   Substitute. 

Handbook  of  Plant  Diseases  and  Pest 
Control. 

Blackleg. 

Jack  Cheese. 

Neufchatel   Cheese. 

Summary  of  the  Annual  Reports  of  the 
Farm  Advisors  of  California. 

The  Function  of  the  Farm  Bureau. 

Suggestions  to  the  Settler  in  California. 

Evaporators  for  Prune  Drying. 

Seed  Treatment  for  the  Prevention  of 
Cereal  Smuts. 

Feeding  Dairy  Cows  in  California. 

Winter  Injury  or  Die-Back  of  the  Wal- 
nut. 

Methods  for  Marketing  Vegetables  in 
California. 

Advanced  Registry  Testing  of  Dairy 
Cows. 

The  Present  Status  of  Alkali. 

Unfermented  Fruit  Juices. 


